Post Deregulation Act of 1978 Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Post Deregulation Act of 1978 - Term Paper Example The US Airlines industry was primarily a highly controlled one, with heavy regulations imposed upon the air fares, air routes as well as the air schedules. Prevalence of such restrictions within the airlines arena had serious implications upon market demand. The Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB) restricted the entry of new players within the industry, depending upon the approval provided by the Department of Transportation (DOT). Prior to deregulation, unless the DOT endorsed any indigenous airlines company as fit and able to commute passengers within the national premises, they could not operate within the domestic territory (Siddiqi, n.d., par. 1). The outcome of creating such a highly constrictive environment of operation had serious drawbacks upon the cost structure of the companies which were active in the business. Though initially, the profit margin earned by the US airlines industry was quite high, viz., 14%, the situation worsened following the restrictions inflicted by the boar d upon the margin. According to the guidelines being implemented, the profits earned upon stockholder’s equity could not be exceeded beyond a certain ceiling, so that the players who were already present in the market could not increase the air fares above a particular point (Kwong, 1988, p. 14). Though, a low air fare was considered as an advantage for the customers who availed the service, the companies suffered from bottlenecks as their avenues for procuring capital was approaching a standstill.

Student Misconceptions in Secondary Science Dissertation

Student Misconceptions in Secondary Science - Dissertation Example This topic is significant as it connects research to practice. The paper interviews 9 science teachers from three different high schools, and observes two of them in class while introducing a new concept. The research found that there exists a considerable alignment between research and practice with quite a considerable number of teachers employing researched recommendations to deal with student misconceptions. This is despite the fact that in comparison not many teachers have extensive knowledge of research report recommendations. Introduction When teachers instruct students on various concepts from a wide array of subjects, they often encounter students who already have their own preconceived ideas about the theories and concepts on how things work. This is more so in science subjects where children get to understand various aspects of science in their own ways before they are taught on such concepts. For instance some science students before being taught about the galaxy may think that the earth is the biggest planet there is and exists on its own, or they may think that the moon has its own light, or that it is the sun that moves around the earth rather the earth since they can see the sun move and not feel the earth tilt. Indeed research shows that when students come to class to learn they often have their own prior rich knowledge on how science works based on their own experiences, peer interactions, and also based on some science knowledge they have attained or the based on erroneous concepts taught by previous instructors (Yip, 1999:207; Bulunuz, Jarrett, & Bulunuz, 2008:32-33). Such prior knowledge or preconceptions may impact positive or negatively the learning process of a student. Guzzetti (2000:89) in her research report supports this impact by noting that that prior conceptions has on learning experiences by noting that students who hold prior views concerning a given concept do not easily give up these notions. This implies that breaking down misconceptions held by students so as to build correct is noted as one the toughest parts in teaching students of all ages. A mass body of knowledge in research has been dedicated in studying various science misconceptions held by students and recommendations passed forward on how teachers can deal with such misconceptions in order to ensure effective knowledge transfer to the students (Bulunuz, Jarrett, & Bulunuz, 2008; Guzzetti, 2000; Yip, 1998). No known study to the author though has so far reviewed and analysed how the use of such recommendations have been in class, or the degree to which such recommendations put down in research are adopted by secondary school teachers in dealing with misconceptions in science subjects. This research report seeks to cover this gap in knowledge and investigate by how far research meets practise by seeking to answer the research question: how well do science teachers us e research recommendations to deal with student misconceptions in science? Literature Review Student Science Misconceptions Guest (2003:2) defines student misconceptions as student’s viewpoints that are different from the conventionally known science knowledge where such beliefs are as a result of previous experience. Others such as Bulnuz, Jarret and Bulunuz (2008:32) and Thompson and Logue (2006:553) view student misconceptions as ideas that provide a crooked and incorrect way to understand about scientific concepts and which may be as a result of personal experiences, everyday language, media or even incorrect instructional material or incorrect ideas from some instructors. These misconceptions are often deep-rooted and tend to be difficult to change (Thompson and Logue, 2006; Guest, 2003: Chi, 2005).

Post war Greece Essay Example for Free

Post war Greece Essay Benito Mussolini had expansionists policies in his Fascist regime in Italy. By the mid of 1940, Mussolini had started admiring Adolf Hitlers conquests and wanted to prove his counterpart, Hitler who was an Axis partner, that he too could lead Italy to success in war. Italy took control over Albania in 1939. Italians invaded Greece after the Greek dictator whose name was I. Metaxas refused to honor Italian ultimatum demanding the occupation of Greek territory. The Greek counter attacked and forced the Italians out and even took control of Albania formerly under Italy. In April 1941, Germany started attacking Greece and the Italian army also resumed their attack to Greece. As a result, the Greece army started retreating back from Albania to avoid a possible cut off by the rapidly advancing Germany troops. On April 20th, the Greek army based at Epirus surrendered to their enemies,the Germans and on the 23rd the same month, the same was repeated now to include the Italians and thus bringing the war between Greece and Italy to an end. The Greek victory over the Italian offensive on October 1940 was the first victory of the second world war and this boosted the morale in the occupied Europe Italian soldiers came across the Greek border in the 28th day of October 1940 but Greek defenders who were more determined drove these invaders back in to Albania (McNail, 167). As the death of Metaxas came in January 1941, he had already undergone a transformation from unpopular dictator who was not admirable by the people in to a national leader liked by the people, by his defiance of Mussolini and to the people his death was a great loss. Hitler was forced to reluctantly divert the troops from Germany to go and rescue Mussolini from being defeated and as a result ended up attacking Greece through Bulgaria and Yugoslavia. In response, the Greek sought for assistance from the British, and assistance was given readily although Greeks kept insisting stubbornly to defend Macedonia and Thrace from attacks by the Germany invaders while the Greeces only hope was to strategically withdraw to a defensive line on a river south of Thessaloniki. Towards the end of May, the German troops had taken control over much of the land in Greece. Both the king and the government escaped to Crete and stayed here until the battle of Crete finally came to an end. From here, they transferred to Egypt where they established a government in exile while an establishment of a Nazi held puppet regime took place in Athens, Greece. Members of this regime were either conservatives or belonging to the nationalists but with fascist leanings. The three people who collaborated with the enemy were T. Georgis, K. Logothetopoulos and R. Ioannis. T. Georgis was the general who signed the armistice earlier with Wehrmacht, while Logothetopoulos had become naughty for having aimed to recruit juvenile volunteers to help in restrengthening the Germany army. On the other hand, R. Ioannis had a very notable achievement in that he saw to the creation of the security battalions for the collaborationists to protect those who supported the enemies. Greece greatly suffered very terrible privations during the second world war when the Germans took control of most of the Greeces agricultural production and also prevented the fishing fleets of Greece from operating. Following the Axis force occupation on the Greek land, a great famine struck in the year 1941 and 1942 because of the blockade by the British naval and also due to the fact that Germany soldiers had seized the crops. Due to hunger and other associated effects of famine, several thousands of Greeks died. AS a result, several resistance movements came up in the hilly and mountain regions and soon the Germans and those who supported them remained in control of only the major highways and the connected towns. The largest of the up coming group was the National Popular Liberation Army (the ELAS) which was under the control of the communists and a civil war soon broke out between the National popular liberation army and the non- communists uprising groups such as the national republican Greek league (the EDES) in the areas which had been liberated from the German troops. The royalist government set up in exile in Cairo was only intermittently keeping in touch with the resistant movement and this government in Cairo failed to appreciate how the monarchy set up in Greece had lost its popularity. The resistance of the Greeks people against invasion by the Italians had a great influence to the course the second world war took. Adolf Hitler would say that if Italy had not attacked Greece and needed Germany assistance, the world war would have taken a quite different course. What would be anticipated was the cold war in Russia by weeks, Moscow and Reningrad conquered and Stalingrad would not have existed. The need to occupy Greece, suppress partisans and defend Greece from Allied actions led Germany and Italy to drop much of their differences during the second world war. The Greek resistance ultimately necessitated collaboration between Germany and Italy. Due to political considerations, British forces were send to Greece from Middle East, and this was considered to be a major strategic mistake because that was a critical stage to divert military forces from Middle East. The British forces could not stop Germany invasion in Greece. Political disorder and the 1946-49 war in Greece In October 1944, German forces withdrew from Greece and the Greece government in exile came back to Athens. Then the ELAS guerrilla soldiers took control over most of the land in Greece with its leaders having an ultimate aim to control the whole country despite Stallins agreement that Greece would remain within the region of influence by the British after the war. Demonstrators from the Communist Athens ended in violence in early December 1944, and then followed a door to door battle with the British forces and the monarchist armies. Before a month had ended, the communists had been defeated and an unstable government of coalition was established. Continued tensions within this government led to a civil war in the year 1946. Greece was backed by Britain and later by the United States in terms of military support and economic aid. Between 1947 and 1948, the communist forces had conquered much of the Greece mainland and were able to move freely within the land. With the extensive material support from America and the reorganization, the Greek navy steadily took control over much of the mainland. Yugoslavia had to close her borders from the insurgent military in 1949 after it broke relationship with the Soviet Union. In 1949, a final offensive was launched by Marshal P. Alexander that forced the insurgents who were left back to flee across the border to the north in to the territories of the Greece neighbors or else they surrender. The civil war left about one hundred people killed and also resulted to major damages to the economy. More than twenty five thousand Greeks and many Macedonian Slavs were evacuated to the eastern bloc countries either by force or voluntarily while over seven hundred thousand people became internally displaced people in Greece and many more emigrated to, among other countries, Australia. This settlement after the war greatly expanded the Greece territory which had already started earlier in 1832. In 1947, a treaty in Paris was signed and it required Italy to surrender the Dodecanese islands to the Greece. These islands had the majority of inhabitants speaking Greece and were part of the last areas to be incorporated to the Greek state, except Cyprus which remained under possession of Britain until its independence later in 1960. Greeks ethnicity became more homogeneous after the war when more than twenty five thousand Albanians were expelled from Epirus. The remaining minorities of no significance were the Muslims in West Thrace and few Slavic speaking in the north. Greeks continued to claim more of the southern Albania where significant Greek population lived. Economic miracle for Greece: 1955-79) The Greek economic miracle implies the factual and impressive rate of social and economic development that occurred in Greece from the early of 1950s to the middle of the 1970s. The average rate of economic growth recorded between the year 1950 to 1973 was about seven percent which was the worlds second best after that of Japan in those times. The 1950s growth rate was the highest sometimes going above ten percent, almost nearing those of a modern tiger economy. This continued up to 1960s. The Greek people did not view it as a miracle because since the period after the war until the middle of the 1970s, it was a time of deep political divisions that resulted to military dictatorship between 1957 to 1964 and the Greeks did not see any positive economic change for this period of twenty years. Further more, growth initially only widened the economic gap between the few rich and the majority poor and this could only intensify political divisions. Between 1941 and 1944, the Axis occupation and the fighting with resistance groups had unexpected effects on the infrastructure and also on the Greeces economy. Given also that after the end of the first world war, Greece went in to civil war, its economy had drastically fallen by 1950. The Greece per capita income as a measure of its purchasing power fell, just like that of France, from 62 percent to about 40 percent in the year 1949 (Cranidlis, 97). Greece experienced a rapid recovery of its poor economic condition. This was as a result of a number of factors among them the stimulation from the Marshall plan, a fast devaluation of the Drachma, more foreign investments, significant industrial development especially the development of the chemical industry, development of the public services sector and development of tourism industry and a widespread construction activities coming as a result of enormous infrastructural project building and rebuilding in the Greek towns and cities. The construction activities are connected with the fast economic growth on the society and the development of its towns. This led to renewal of the urban through replacing the pleasant urban, consisting mainly of low rising houses and peoples homes, with a continuous set of concrete and block storey and skyscrapers in most key cities and towns. After 1950, economic growth consistently was better than that of many European countries in terms of annual growth. The only time there was economic stagnation was in the 1980s but it was counterbalanced when the Greek black economy evolved at the same time. The good economic performance made Greece advance its economy to enjoy a per capita income almost the same as that of other European Union partners like France and German (Krofas, 123). After end of the civil war, Greece sought to join hands with the western democracies by becoming a member of NATO in the year 1952. From this time to the late 1963, Greece was under conservative parties. In1964, the party called the Center Union led by George Papandreau was elected and remained in rule until July of 1965 before he was dismissed by king Constantine II, thereby resulting to a constitutional crisis. The fall of this government led to a series of coalition governments between the conservatives and rebel liberals. On April 1967, a group of colonels from the right wing seized power in a coup. They suppressed civil liberties , established special military courts and dissolved political parties. Thousands of political party opponents and those suspected to be communists were imprisoned or taken to exile to very remote Greek islands. United States was alleged to have supported junta and this caused the rise of anti- Americanism in the Greece during and immediately after the junta rule. However, the united states had already earned the animosity of communists in Greece long before. In 1974, a referendum resulted in abolishment of a monarchy and a new constitution was made and passed by the parliament on the 19th of June 1975. President T. Constantine was elected by parliament to head the republic. In the 1977 elections to the parliament, the New democracy party won for a second time with a majority seats. In 1980, Karamanlis who was the prime minister was elected to succeed T. Constantine as the president with George Rallis being elected as the prime minister to succeed Tsatsos. Greece joined the European Community, now called the European Union on 1st January 1981. It also elected the countrys first socialist government. In 1989, there were two rounds of parliamentary elections which both produced coalition governments that were weak and had limited mandates. Party leaders held back their support for those governments and elections were once again held in April. The new democracy party led by Constantine Mitsotakis won. In 1992, Samaras formed his own party after being fired from the position of a cabinet minister for Foreign affairs. He called the party the Political Spring. As a result of this division, the New democracy government collapsed and when new elections were held in September 1993, Papandreou returned to power. Papandreou resigned on January 17th of 1996 due to a protracted illness. He was then replaced as the countrys prime minster by the former minister of trade and industry by the name, Costas Simitis who consecutively won the elections in 1996 and also in 2000 before retiring in 2004. His successor was George Papandreou as PASOK leader. In March 2004, elections were held and New Democracy under the leadership of Costas Karamanlis who was a nephew to the former president saw the victory over the PASOK. Instead of waiting for normal elections that should have been held in March the year 2008, the government called for elections in September 2007 and the New Democracy once again won the majority vote in the parliament. Due to this repeated defeat, the PASOK underwent a party election in search of a new leader that saw Mr. Georgis Papandreau re-election as the party leader of the Socialist Party in Greece. Review of Economic Literature It is important to review the economic thoughts from both the Greek and the American writers and compare them in the perspective of the economic reconstruction of Greece. A good approach would be first reviewing the economic thought in the 1930s and 1940s and then that of the American technical experts who were either in Greece based American embassy or in the AMAG. (Lincoln, 64). Reviewing the plans by Batsis, Valvaresos and Zolotas is also of importance to acquire a clear thought about the economic miracle and general development for the Greece from very poor to one of the worlds best economies. A scrutiny of what the exact agenda of the AMAG and other aids to develop the Greece economy was, is of importance in shining light in to this issue. Establishing whether there was any difference between the American economic experts working with the AMAG and Americans working in the American embassy to Greece in Athens in terms of priorities and the paths to reconstruction is felt to be essential. This way, most questions of much concern to economic historians will be answered well and also valuable material towards making reconstructions in the history of economics will be unearthed, especially for the post second world war period in Greece The depression of economy in the whole world led the default in Greece in the year 1932and afterwards to the introduction of a quite successful system. The gross domestic product was 510 million dollars in the year 1931, then dropped to 330 million dollars in the year 1932, remained at the same stable low level in 1934 at 340 million dollars and drastically rose in the subsequent years of 1934 at 490 million dollars, 1935 at 510 million dollars and 1936 at 550 million dollars. Despite the economic success, the poor remained miserable due to the falling prices and the problem of the merchant class which was used to free trade and had problem with coping in the new trade conditions of exchange controls. Most Greek economists concentrated on writing and analyzing the economic success of their country and did very little on questioning the actual role of the American Mission Aid for Greece that it played in uplifting the economic situation of Greece. The economists made numerous economic publications such as books, journals, treatises, periodicals among others. The interventionists were most influential and they had studies in Germany in 1920s to 1930s. These economists espoused a development theory stage to which the Greek government ought to take to speed up the rate of economic development. It was based on the fact that the economy of Greece could not rely on private initiative alone. Most of them remained hostile to abstract thinking and viewed the dirigiste policies world over as evidence of the validity of their thesis. The liberals viewed the historical present hitherto as a parenthesis and had a believe that the whole world including Greece economy ought to have an international economic corporation. The liberals also supported that it was necessary for the state to intervene and as a result they came up with a frame upon which the Greece government should act upon in a liberal economy. The Marxists viewed the crash of 1929 as evidence for capitalism break down. Particularly in Greece, the imperialism of the great powers and the kings rule were to be overthrown by mass action for socialism to be established.

What Is Strategic Spatial Planning Environmental Sciences Essay

What Is Strategic Spatial Planning Environmental Sciences Essay Introduction Strategic spatial planning is arguably an approach which rails against the discourse of the scientific rational comprehensive models of planning which has and still does hold a large influence in current modes of planning. This short essay will hopefully explain to planners why a strategic spatial planning approach is more conducive in the current context which we find ourselves in. This will be done through answering a set of questions which will clarify the approach, its purpose and methods, how it differs from rational comprehensive approaches of master planning and land use planning, why planners should use it, what can be expected from it, and its usefulness. What is Strategic Spatial Planning? Strategic spatial planning is a method to help solve complex spatial problems through creating strategic visions and new spatial identities. According to Kaufman and Jacobs (in Albrechts, 2001) strategic systems originated in the US around the 1950s due to the need for rapidly changing and growing corporations to plan effectively and manage their futures at a time when the future seemed unclear. In Europe, strategic spatial planning dated back to the 1920s and 30s, and was used to direct the activities of others (Mastop in Albrechts, 2001). From Albrechts (2006) it can be understood that the word spatial brings into focus the where of things, the creation and management of special places and sites as well as the interrelations between different activities in an area, and significant intersections and nodes within an area. This spatial focus allows for a more effective way of integrating different agendas such as, economic, social, and cultural and their spatial impacts (Albrechts, 2006). The word strategy has its roots within a military context; in ancient battle armies would work out a strategy prior to the battle on how best to overcome the enemy. It is understood that this type of strategy had four basic elements an accurate understanding of the real situation, realistic goals, focused resources in areas where they would be most effective, and persistence of the action until the desired outcome is achieved (Albrechts, 2010). These elements are strongly rooted in systems of strategic spatial planning. In its entirety, strategic spatial planning is a process which is directed at a limited number of strategic key issue areas. It determines an areas strengths and weaknesses in the context of its opportunities and threats; it scans external trends, and the resources that are available. It gathers major public and private stakeholders and allows for a broad and diverse process of involvement. It develops a realistic long-term vision along with strategies in order to manage and influence spatial change. Importantly it is orientated towards decisions, actions, results, and implementation, in the short, medium and long-term (Albrechts, 2001). It is indeed impossible to understand material places and social nodes such as the city, the city-region and the region in terms of a one-dimensional hierarchy of scales (Albrechts, 2010:6). This definition illustrates that strategic spatial planning is not a single concept or procedure, but it is a set of concepts, procedures and tools that are tailored carefully to whatever situation is presented (Albrecht, 2001). Moreover it is a development-led approach and a transformative and integrative, public sector-led, and socio-spatial process through which a vision, coherent actions and means for implementation are produced; these are then able to shape and frame what a place is and its potential of what it may become (Albrechts, 2006) How does it differ from MASTER PLANNING and LAND USE PLANNING? In order to understand the difference one needs to understand the rationale of land use planning and master planning. Land use planning is a process of planning which is concerned with the location, intensity, form, amount, and harmonization of land development required for a variety of spatial uses; such as housing, industry, recreation, transport, education, and agriculture. A land use plan in this instance basically embodies a proposal as to how land should be used within a set of considered policy as expansion and restructuring progress in the future (Albrechts, 2004). Traditional land use planning is a more passive planning approach aimed at controlling land use through a zoning system and through regulations. This according to Albrechts (2006) seems unfit for bridging the gap between plan-making, political decision-making and implementation. This was one of the reasons why the need arose for a different type of planning a move away from regulatory policy and instruments to a development-led approach which aims to intervene more directly, coherently and selectively in social reality and development strategic spatial planning (Albrechts, 2006). For Albrechts (2001) strategic spatial planning is to a certain extent rendered towards an integrated socio-economic course of action that supersedes the mere focus on land use planning. For Master Planning on the other hand, Friedman (2007) found that it is almost a universally accepted form of planning practice. His survey found that in country after country, cities through their governments are mandated to produce master plans. Essentially within these master plans countries specify future land uses and location decisions. Master planning is a completely static practice and according to Friedman (2007) it needs to be rethought as it is out of line with the dynamic flows of globalisation. Friedman (2007) defines master planning as being typically municipal plans rather than regional plans, and as being exclusively concerned with land use rather than with the total spectrum of urban policy issues. They are drawn up by a specialized branch of municipal government rather than through a wider process of collaborative deliberation, and the process used to draw up master plans and getting them approved takes years thus rendering them out-dated by the time they can be implemented. Also they are top-down, with relatively minimum citizen participation, and lastly when it comes to large scale projects; master plans are often set aside to allow for necessary changes in land use and circulation patterns (Friedman, 2007). Opposing this, spatial planning is derived not from an official, mandatory character like master planning but from a role that coordinates instruments closely intertwined with urban policy formation and the design and implementation of large-scale projects. Spatial planning involves a range of actors that include communities, government officials and private stakeholders. The main purpose of spatial planning is not to mandate particular land uses as is in the instance of master planning but to allow for a better coordination of urban policies and large-scale project developments across space, to test alternative policies and designs through revising their social implications, and to allow for an informed public discourse about them (Friedman, 2007). In cities such as the new downtown peninsula of Vancouver, master planning has been abandoned for systems of spatial planning in which planning proceeds by way of involving public hearings, bargaining, and negotiations. The results of this transition over a period of 25 years are testimony to the viability not only of the Vancouver model but also of the more abstract spatial planning model (Friedman, 2007). What are its main PURPOSES and METHODS? Strategic spatial planning as mentioned earlier is used for complex problems where authorities at different levels and different sectors and private actors are mutually dependant (Albrecht, 2001). The model designs plan-making structures and develops content, images and decision frameworks which can influence and manage spatial change. It is about constructing new ideas and processes that can carry these structures through, thus generating ways of understanding, ways of consensus, and ways of organising and mobilizing for the purpose of exerting influence in different arenas (Albrecht, 2006). Both is the short and long term, strategic spatial planning focuses on framing decisions, actions, projects, results and implementation, and incorporates monitoring, feedback, adjustment and revision of the outcome. Its purpose therefore is not a new ideology preaching a new world order but as a method for creating and steering a better future for a place based on shared values (Albrechts, 2006). Albrechts (2006) goes further on to explain that the seven main aims of a strategic project are to develop an integrated innovative approach for the various project types; to develop a fully operational framework based on sustainability; to develop tools for quality management; to broaden the multi-actor/multi-level policy settings and to evaluate current settings; to disseminate the approach; to develop an educational model; and to establish a network of knowledge between researchers, professionals, and governments (Albrechts, 2006). The capacity for these projects to deliver the desired outcome is dependant firstly on the system itself and on the conditions underlying it such as structural constraints, and political, cultural, and professional attitudes towards spatial planning. The planning process is not intended to flow smoothly from one phase to the next. It is a dynamic and creative process wherein new views and facts that arise today may alter the decisions made yesterday (Albrechts, 2010). This illustrates that it is never a fixed process but is in a continuous start of change from beginning to end. The visions and frames which guide this process are never a given, rather they are to be constructed. The process of envisioning is the process by which groups develop visions of future states for themselves, their organisations, city, or their region that are clear, powerful and realistic. Essentially this means that the visions are to be constructed within a specific context and scale regarding issues that are of interest within that space and within a particular combination of actors. This is to be done within a method that fully recognises the conditions of power, inequality, and diversity. The vision describes a city or region as it may look like in the future, and it must appeal to the long-term interests of actors who have a stake in the city or region (Albrechts, 2010:8). Why do this kind of planning? Strategic spatial planning projects conduct an in-depth study of the area, thus giving preference to the location being affected over anything else. With this these projects study external trends and the resources available therefore allowing for a broad and diverse process. Also, by making use of this type of planning, planners are able to target a variety of areas; including urban, rural, and economic areas (Albrechts, 2006). In the instance of urban areas, strategic urban projects are useful as they aim to consolidate, transform, restructure or reuse the urban areas for new and emerging demands from public and private actors. With regards to rural areas, strategic projects are useful as they aim to transform rural and suburban dynamics into a more sustainable and qualitative form of development while not forgetting to enhance the cultural meaning of these spaces. Lastly, economic areas are seen as an important part of the effort to keep up international economic competitiveness. Strategic projects seek to turn away from the old concept of business parks spatial concept and management to a focus on the requirements of firms that are to be translated into specifically designed employment locations (Albrechts, 2006). And what can we expect from it? This question can be divided into two parts; we as planners and we as the public and private actors. First, the essay will intend to the address the latter part. Strategic spatial planning projects are strategic to achieve visions, goals, and objectives from a variety of policy sectors, and are to integrate the community being affected. Visions is arguably one of the most important factors of strategic projects as they are expected to be placed within the specific context, place, time and level, and are to regard specific issues that are of interest to the different actors (Albrechts, 2006). Essentially what can be expected from strategic spatial planning projects is a critical analysis of the main processes and structural constraints which shape spaces, which adds into a realistic, dynamic, integrated, and indicative long-term vision. It will provide a plan for short-term and long-term actions, a budget, and a flexible strategy for implementation (Albrechts, 2010). In terms of the projects eventual implementation, it will provide credible commitments to action engagement and a clear and explicit link to the budget thus allowing for citizens, private-sector, different levels of governance, and planners to enter a consensus (Albrechts, 2010). We as planners will expect a different set of tools, tools which will guide the planner on what to expect when acting as a strategic spatial planner. For Albrechts (2010), he finds it unthinkable that the planner should act merely as a neutral observer and refrain from playing a role in the construction of visions and images. Instead, Albrechts suggests that planners should be necessarily involved, and instrumental in substantiating, formulating and implementing images and visions. This is a logical perspective, as if planners merely observe, there expertise in certain situations are not shared, and their usefulness would be greatly undermined. Strategic spatial planners are to instead, challenge their own mental discourse which limit their creativity, and start anew thus allowing for their creativity and resourcefulness to flow and to be used in formulating, designing, and building new concepts and discourses (Albrechts, 2010). How useful is it? Strategic spatial planning is a flexible process that deals with complex problems and is able to mend to a wide range of problems, but also deals with each problem uniquely. This characteristic makes the approach very useful as it applies to a range of different issues. For example; the city of Barcelona started using a strategic planning approach in 1988 in order to enhance the cooperation between the public and private sector with the hope that the enhancement will strengthen the position of the city as a candidate for the Olympic Games (Albrechts, 2010). The city of Turin which was inspired by Barcelona also undertook a strategic approach in the mid 1990s, for Turin this formed the basis for rethinking the potential of a former monopolistic town that had been highly affected by the rise of the automobile industry. The aim for Strategic spatial planning here was to transform Turin into a European metropolis a city of activities and know-how (Albrechts, 2010:5). For the city of Bilbao, the vision was to transport the city into the economic, financial, and cultural capital of the Atlantic Arc. Lastly, for Prague, strategic spatial planning focused on integrating the city into European structures (Albrechts, 2010). From this it is clear that strategic spatial planning is applicable to a diverse range of issues and can adapt easily to what is required in the context for which it is envisioning, thus rendering it a useful approach to planning. Conclusion From the information discussed in this essay the approach of strategic spatial planning has been explained. Through using such an approach to planning it can be deduced that spaces can be become more active and interactive both on a local scale and the sectors within that scale and on an international scale. In short, episodes of strategic spatial planning informed by relational complexity concepts which accumulate sufficient power to travel effectively and have enduring material and mental effects should be judged in the long-term in terms of their capacity to enrich the imaginative resources, creative energies and governance cultures through which quality of life and experience of diverse citizens and stakeholders in particular places are likely to be enhanced. (Healey, 2006:19)

The History of Abortion :: Womens rights, murder of a child

Abortions have been mentioned throughout recorded history, simply not a prevalent issue. In the times before Christ, typical abortion methods would be to poison the mother (in hope that she lived while the fetus died), or to abuse the mother’s abdomen. Hippocrates and Soranos, who were considered the greatest of all ancient gynecologists, both opposed abortion, though whether it was for the protection of the mother or fetus is not clear. The Hippocratic Oath, formulated around 400B.C., prohibits abortion and was taken verbatim by U.S. physicians (Gilbert 1). Once abortions became better developed and they started to be considered safe, the Catholic Church felt compelled to condemn the practice. It was considered murder and a horrid mortal sin. The Church struggled to find the appropriate time in the pregnancy cycle to consider abortion murder of the baby’s life. Different beliefs about when the baby was actually alive caused much disagreement. The Church prohibited abortion during many different times, sometimes at conception, other times when the baby first moved, and still other times when the pregnancy was four months along, also known as quickening. However, Judaism, Catholicism, and Protestantism always prohibited abortion of an animate fetus, or one considered alive with a soul. The problem was simply figuring when life began. During colonial times, medical guides gave recipes to abort the baby, with herbs that could be grown in one’s garden. By the mid-eighteenth century, these herbs were so widely available that they caused the first abortion laws to actually be considered poison control laws. The sale of commercial abortifacients was banned, however the action of the abortion was not. The laws made little difference (History 2). Even today, as Beverly Wildung Harrison, a feminist, says, â€Å"The withdrawal of legal abortion will create one more massively profitable underworld economy in which the Mafia and other sections of the quasi-legal capitalism may and will profitably invest† (390). Until the last third of the nineteenth century, when it was considered a criminal offense, abortion was legal before quickening. Under common law, post-quickening abortion was considered homicide or manslaughter. Statutes usually differed throughout the states, but generally abortion was punished after quickening as manslaughter and prior to quickening as a misdemeanor (Gilbert 1). In 1857, the American Medical Association appointed a committee on Criminal Abortion. Its purpose was to investigate criminal abortion â€Å"with a view to its general suppression†. They concluded that a fetus was a living person at the moment of conception, and this belief was encouraged by an even stronger report from the same committee in 1871. The History of Abortion :: Women's rights, murder of a child Abortions have been mentioned throughout recorded history, simply not a prevalent issue. In the times before Christ, typical abortion methods would be to poison the mother (in hope that she lived while the fetus died), or to abuse the mother’s abdomen. Hippocrates and Soranos, who were considered the greatest of all ancient gynecologists, both opposed abortion, though whether it was for the protection of the mother or fetus is not clear. The Hippocratic Oath, formulated around 400B.C., prohibits abortion and was taken verbatim by U.S. physicians (Gilbert 1). Once abortions became better developed and they started to be considered safe, the Catholic Church felt compelled to condemn the practice. It was considered murder and a horrid mortal sin. The Church struggled to find the appropriate time in the pregnancy cycle to consider abortion murder of the baby’s life. Different beliefs about when the baby was actually alive caused much disagreement. The Church prohibited abortion during many different times, sometimes at conception, other times when the baby first moved, and still other times when the pregnancy was four months along, also known as quickening. However, Judaism, Catholicism, and Protestantism always prohibited abortion of an animate fetus, or one considered alive with a soul. The problem was simply figuring when life began. During colonial times, medical guides gave recipes to abort the baby, with herbs that could be grown in one’s garden. By the mid-eighteenth century, these herbs were so widely available that they caused the first abortion laws to actually be considered poison control laws. The sale of commercial abortifacients was banned, however the action of the abortion was not. The laws made little difference (History 2). Even today, as Beverly Wildung Harrison, a feminist, says, â€Å"The withdrawal of legal abortion will create one more massively profitable underworld economy in which the Mafia and other sections of the quasi-legal capitalism may and will profitably invest† (390). Until the last third of the nineteenth century, when it was considered a criminal offense, abortion was legal before quickening. Under common law, post-quickening abortion was considered homicide or manslaughter. Statutes usually differed throughout the states, but generally abortion was punished after quickening as manslaughter and prior to quickening as a misdemeanor (Gilbert 1). In 1857, the American Medical Association appointed a committee on Criminal Abortion. Its purpose was to investigate criminal abortion â€Å"with a view to its general suppression†. They concluded that a fetus was a living person at the moment of conception, and this belief was encouraged by an even stronger report from the same committee in 1871.

Science and Religion Essay -- History, Witchcraft, Magic

Humans do not engage the world in a neutral way. Instead, we see world through the reality that our culture creates. Without culture, humanity would have to continuously reinvent the wheel, perhaps even literally. It casts a web of reality over us that is inescapable. We are constantly in the grip of our culture. Therefore, it isn’t surprising to find societies with cultures which differ greatly from ours who come to very different conclusions about what reality is. When we are confronted with these differences in world views, we are often quick and confident to assert that our way of life is superior to others. This is behavior isn’t unique to tribes indigenous to foreign lands who believe in so-called â€Å"primitive† religions. It is even true of the Western world’s modern science. Science is another example of the cultural frameworks we use to understand the world around us. If this is the case, then science too must be part of a web of reality created by our culture, and is therefore not superior (nor inferior) to religion, but rather runs parallel to it. However, the Western mind generally recoils from the idea that science does anything but describe reality in hard, empirical detail. As mentioned, since these cultural frameworks envelope us, we often to not regard them as socially negotiated ways of engaging the world, but rather as absolute and unquestioned reality. The same is true of both religion and science. The unquestioned nature of this cultural framework was described by anthropologist Evans-Pritchard in his seminal work, Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic among the Azande. In this ethnography, Evans-Pritchard examines how completely encompassing the Azande tradition of magic and witchcraft is to the people.... ...thin the same process. In this way, science seems superior to other methods of engaging the world. However, as we have seen, science has its limitations in describing certain categories of knowledge. It cannot be used to make ethical judgements or learn an ultimate truth. Such areas are outside its scope. In this way, magic and religion provide answers which science cannot. So science is not necessarily superior to religion and magic, neither is it inferior to it. It is another way of engaging the world, one which answers a different set of questions and solves a different set of problems from magic and religion. So long as a cultural framework benefits the society which implements it, it is useful. Furthermore, when these cultural frameworks are as deeply intertwined with everyday reality as is the case with the Azande’s witchcraft, they become necessary.

Disciplinarily Process Essay

Introduction: The purpose of this report is to provide the background and reasons why the decisions by Fair Work Australia were made in Sam’s favour. It identifies areas the company needs to address and implement in order to prevent this type of situation from occurring again. Work History as Sam’s Team Manager As Sam’s Team Manager I was aware that my predecessors response when dealing with her lacked in encouragement and was poorly handled. Sam is a diligent worker however, due to the company changing programming language to one Sam was unfamiliar with she has been unable to meet specific deadlines. Time was spent with Sam trying to understand her issues and Resources relocated in order to allow Sam extra time until she was confident and competent using the new programming language. The offer of additional training was made , but no specific timelines for a performance review to discuss progress on meeting the required standard of performance were given. During the final meeting with Sam about her inability to meet her latest deadline, Sam physically struck myself and left the office. A Medical certificate was sent to the office the following day, advising Sam was unfit for work due to stress. The receipt of this medical certificate was confirmed over the phone by Sam, to the HR department and conformation made that it had been documented and filed accordingly. It was then the next day that the incident was reported by myself to my supervisor. A meeting was held with myself, my supervisor and the HR Department, the result was that Sam would be terminated on the basis of serious misconduct.. A letter was sent by registered mail to Sam’s personal address. It was two days later that the unfair dismissal claim was filed by Sam with Fair work Australia. Fair Work Australia Hearing: The outcome of the Fair Work Australia hearing between the company and Sam went in Sam’s favor, this was due to insufficient evidence and documentation provided by the company regarding Sam’s dismissal, on the basis of serious misconduct. See attached Risk Analysis (Appendix 1) for Mitigation/Contingencies on Area’s of risk for this case. The hearing was awarded in Sam’s favour because of the following grounds: * There was no formal disciplinary process. * There was no impartial investigation carried out on the act of misconduct. * There was insufficient documentation of claims of employee meetings and reviews. * The medical certificate given to the company by Sam in its original form was not produced by the company for the hearing. * Sam was able to produce a certified copy of the medical certificate as well as email correspondence between herself and the Human Resources department confirming the companies receipt of the medical certificate. * No records or documents of any meetings or coaching sessions were kept by our company. * No evidence of signed, agreed upon and documented performance management reviews or plans were presented by the company * No formal disciplinary process followed, allowing for an investigation in the lead up to Sam’s dismissal. * There was no evidence proving the misconduct claim had taken place or witnesses to call upon to verify the incident. * During meetings where Sam was warned of poor performance, there were no members of senior management present or human resource department specialists. * There were no documented written warnings in Sam’s file, any agreements made between myself and Sam were verbal. Thus no evidence to support the claim of misconduct by Sam. Proposed Company Strategy for defense against unfair dismissal claims: For the company in future to successfully defend itself against unfair dismissal claims should there be a case of serious misconduct of an employee it needs to ensure it brings its performance management procedure and staff professional development in line with Australian legislation, Fair Work Australia Act 2009 – Small business fair dismissal (See appendix 2 for website links) By ensuring the company has a clear concise format for performance management and professional development that is documented and filed and reviewed accordingly should employee misconduct occur there is clear evidence of the employees history with the company, management and Human Resources department and the events leading up to the case of misconduct. The company needs to conduct Monthly performance reviews on all staff ensuring that agenda’s are used and meetings following the reviews are documented and filed according and if poor performance is a topic on the agenda senior management and a human resources specialist is attendance. Decisions made in performance management reviews are to be documented and conducted using the recommended template (see appendix 3) Should the employee still not meet expectations as agreed upon in Performance reviews the following steps need to be followed and all actions taken need to comply with legislation (Fair work Australia Act 2009 – Small business fair dismissal) as set by Fair Work Australia. Proposed Company Strategy for Employee misconduct: The company needs to review its policy on what is deemed as employee misconduct and the consequences of employee misconduct, the review of this policy needs to be done by senior management and the Human Resources Department making sure the policy and consequences are clear, concise and in line with legislation as set by Fair Work Australia. The below procedure should be followed: Conclusion: By completing a review of company policies and procedures regarding Performance Reviews and Employee misconduct (and the consequences), implementing correct documentation (templates) and storage the company and staff will have a clear understanding of individual staff performance, and legal documentation. Recommendation: By implementing a structured Review process for all staff, and reviewing the companies policy on misconduct. Staff performance is recorded, plans/goals set and agreed upon by staff and management and reviewed by the Human Resources Department. In the case of Sam’s dismissal the recommendation would have been to follow the following steps: At the time of the assault it should have been reported to senior management straight away and Human Resources Department notified immediately. An incident/accident report made and an investigation initiated. The authorities should have been notified and a disciplinary hearing conducted with the conclusion/decision of Sam’s termination being verbally notified with a formal letter of termination given to Sam. This should have been done the same day and a soon as possible following the incident.